Reporting Research Outcomes

Chapter Overview

Much of what we are asked to do in academia and in the workplace involves research, which is loosely defined as systematic investigation undertaken with a goal in mind. Indeed, course research can take a wide variety of forms. In a history class, for instance, students might be tasked with researching the circumstances that contributed to a historical event. In a biology class, they might be asked to conduct a laboratory experiment to test a hypothesis. In a business course, they may be presented with a case study of a situation in a company and asked to research ways to respond to it. And in an engineering class, students may be expected to investigate the viability of a particular project or design. Workplace research projects can likewise be varied. An employee working in one organization may conduct an informational interview with someone working in another organization, for example, to determine the effectiveness of a particular product before recommending that it be purchased. A human resources professional might also survey employees to gauge their reaction to a company policy. A safety inspector, in comparison, might conduct a walk-through of a facility to review staff adherence to health and safety regulations.

Regardless of its purpose, a research project must be planned, executed, and reported with care for its findings to be valuable and useful. This chapter addresses these stages, focusing in particular on reporting research outcomes in APA-style reports.

How does an investigator begin a research project?

A research project often begins with a kernel of an idea, a thought about something that has the potential to drive further exploration. Whether the kernel is inspired by an assignment prompt, a piece of reading, a campus problem, a workplace issue, or personal curiosity, the objective is to turn the kernel into a pursuable topic for research. In broad terms, a pursuable topic is

• Manageable, meaning that it is not too broad or narrow.
• Defined in scope, meaning that its focus is delineated.
• Practicable, meaning that it can be investigated in a feasible way.

If you have the opportunity to propose an idea for a research project, also aim to identify a topic that is interesting to you to inspire momentum as you work.

Taking the above information into account, which of the following items, adapted from Reynolds Community College Libraries (2019b, “Sample Topic – Broadening Chart”; 2019c, p. 1), is a pursuable topic for a five- to seven-page research paper? Provide a rationale for your choice(s) in the space provided.

• Global warming
• Should state laws be enacted to ban texting and cellphone use while driving?
• How have government fishing regulations in the United States affected the freshwater fish population?
• What marketing strategies implemented by Publix Super Markets, Inc. have been successful in increasing the company’s sales in the Richmond, Virginia, area since it opened its location in the Short Pump Crossing Shopping Center in 2017?

The quest to identify a pursuable topic might begin with a brainstorming session to ascertain what you know about a subject, what you do not know, and what you wish to discover through research. Brainstorming techniques include the following.

• Listing all the ideas that come to mind about the topic without editing your work.
• Free writing by noting down anything you can think of about the topic.
• Answering who, what, when, where, why, how, and so what questions about the topic.
• Expressing the topic as a problem and creating an outline of its causes, effects, and potential solutions.
• Writing the topic in the center of a page and grouping offshoot ideas around that topic while using lines or arrows to show how the elements are connected (mind mapping).

A brainstorming session may help you to identify areas of interest regarding a topic and narrow the focus of a broad subject area.

To determine whether a topic is pursuable, you might also explore existing research in the area. Have other investigators studied the same topic? What have they found? What methods have they used? What time period, geographic location, or demographic have they focused on? Where have they reported their results? Are these reputable publication outlets? By exploring existing research, you can get a sense of what type of material already exists on the topic and what kind of contribution you might make to the research landscape.

Librarians can also offer invaluable advice about how to explore potential research topics. For instance, they can demonstrate how to efficiently and effectively use Google Scholar, a widely accessible internet search engine that provides access to peer-reviewed journal articles and other sources, as well as library databases, large, searchable online directories of research materials. Additionally, they can help you narrow search terms to maximize productive use of these resources by employing techniques similar to those outlined in Figure 1,  from The Learning Portal, College Libraries Ontario (2020).

Figure 1. How to generate a keyword list to search a database

Effective internet and library research largely hinges on defining useful search terms, and librarians have considerable expertise in this area, making them excellent academic support resources.

Also remember that your instructor is a valuable academic support resource who can help to resolve questions about assignments and encourage research efforts. Instructors build office hours into their work calendars each week—times when they are available to meet or talk with students—and these are opportunities to discuss research project as they take shape. Follow the guidance in Figure 2 to gain maximum benefit from office hour sessions.

Figure 2. “Make the Most out of Office Hours” is licensed under a CC BY NC SA 4.0 International License

Do not hesitate to contact your instructor for help with a research project; after all, instructors were once novice researchers, so they can understand the complex nature of research undertakings.

How does an investigator develop research questions?

Upon identifying a pursuable topic, you might construct one or more research questions, questions a study seeks to answer, to help further define your project’s focus and direction.  Depending on the discipline, instructor, or assignment, you might be expected to list the questions in your project deliverable. Alternatively, you might be expected to articulate your answer to the research questions in the form of a thesis statement that establishes your research report’s purpose and direction. Figure 3 illustrates how a research question can be converted into a thesis statement.

Try it yourself.

As Figure 3 explains, a thesis statement is the answer to a research question: it communicates a viewpoint reached as a result of research.

Research questions can determine a project’s agenda, scope, and approaches to data collection and analysis if they are purposefully constructed, so it is worth thinking about them carefully. In broad terms, a research question should precisely specify the focus of an investigation so that it can feasibly be pursued through inquiry.  The multipage handout in Figure 4, adapted from the Writing and Communication Centre, University of Waterloo (n.d.a), illustrates the process of moving from a pursuable topic to a research question and further defines the characteristics of effective research questions.

Figure 4. The process of moving from a topic to constructing an effective research question

While the initial version of a research question can guide the course of a study, the question may also evolve with the project, so be prepared to adjust it as the research takes shape. The multipage handout in Figure 5, adapted from McLaughlin Library, University of Guelph (n.d.a), reinforces this point and offers a graphic organizer to help with constructing and refining research questions.

Figure 5. A guide to developing research questions

For a research question to be effective, it must be focused, as figures 4 and 5 emphasize.

How does an investigator conduct research?

During the process of identifying a pursuable research topic and question(s), an investigator must also consider what research methods to use. Research methods are means for conducting an investigation, and these should be selected with a study’s purpose in mind. The existing literature, context, scope, discipline, and timeline for a project will also help define what research methods are typical, practical, and useful.

In terms of research approaches and methods, an investigator might use primary or secondary research or both when carrying out a project. Primary research is raw data that an investigator collects or examines firsthand; such information may be gathered, for example, through the use of interviews, questionnaires, experiments, or observations. The “Interviewing for Information” chapter of this textbook and its accompanying reading, “Introduction to Primary Research: Observations, Surveys, and Interviews” (Driscoll, 2011), discuss several of these research methods in detail. The “Conducting Primary Research” section of the Purdue Online Writing Lab (https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/purdue_owl.html) provides additional information about primary research. An investigator might decide to use primary research, for instance, to delve into a little studied topic, to gather first-person accounts of situations or events, or to uncover various perspectives on issues. Secondary research comprises previously conducted studies and organized accounts of what others have discovered or said about a topic. Secondary research can be found in journal articles, laboratory reports, governmental reports, trade publications, magazines, and newspapers, among other sources. By reading secondary research, an investigator can get a feel for the existing scholarship on a topic. In addition, a secondary research source can often lead to other useful sources on the same topic via means of its reference list. A librarian can help you search for useful secondary research sources for a project.

Although this chapter discusses research activities in a linear fashion in an effort to be clear, in reality, research processes are typically recursive, meaning they occur in repeated sequences and oftentimes involve different approaches and types of data sources. Textbook writers Hamlin et al. (2017b, p. 43) explain this point with an example. Imagine you are assigned a course research project. You might begin the project by trying to read journal articles on your chosen topic, only to discover you lack the necessary background knowledge to fully understand the articles. To increase your background knowledge, you might consult an encyclopedia or textbook on the topic. You may then encounter a statement in a newspaper editorial that inspires you to return to journal articles to see if existing research supports the statement. Figure 6 illustrates the recursive nature of research and resource use.

Figure 6. “Cycle of Revolving Research” is licensed under a CC BY NC SA 4.0 international license

Expect to engage with different sources of information at different times as you undertake a research project.

How does an investigator evaluate research information?

Whether you use primary research, secondary research, or both in a project, you have a responsibility as an ethical technical communicator to evaluate the quality of information you incorporate into a deliverable. Readers use research for various purposes—for example, to find out about new medical treatments, ways to use technology, or means for building structures—and they need accurate information to proceed safely and confidently. Looking at the issue another way, the worth of your own research can be called into question if you rely on questionable or disreputable sources. Evaluating the quality of research information is clearly an important task, as Figure 7, a handout adapted from the Excelsior Online Writing Lab (2020d), makes clear.

Can you think of other tips you might add to the handout?

Figure 7. “Evaluating a Website” is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 International license.

EvaluatingAWebsite2019

Although Figure 7 focuses on the trustworthiness of websites, the “Writing Topic Proposals” and “Writing Essays” chapters of this textbook provide additional guidance on how to evaluate the quality of various types of sources.

How does an investigator use research information?

As a research project takes shape and progresses, you will also need to think about the relationship of source information to your research deliverable. That is, what type of information will you use, and how will you use it? The following text, adapted from Hayden and Margolin (2020), discusses this point in further detail.

Using the BEAM method as inspiration, we can create the graphic organizer in Table 1 to guide our efforts to match sources to purposes in a deliverable. Note that the number of source cells can be reduced or increased depending on the research project.

A graphic organizer for matching sources to their purposes in a deliverable

A graphic organizer like the one in Table 1 offers a visual layout of how different types of sources might be used and how they ultimately tie back to a research question.

In addition to determining what types of sources might be useful for what purposes in a deliverable, a researcher also needs to synthesize source information, in other words, combine it purposefully with the objective of creating something new, to make a contribution to the existing field of research. Figure 8, a multipage handout adapted from the Writing and Communication Centre, University of Waterloo (n.d.b), illustrates the process of synthesis in a research project.

Figure 8. Using synthesis to combine source information and create something new

As this section makes clear, a research project involves more than just gathering data. It calls upon an investigator to use the data in purposeful ways to address research objectives.

How does an investigator track steps in the research process?

Although the research process discussed thus far may seem rather involved, effective preparation can prevent it from becoming overwhelming. A simple tool like the one in Table 2 can help you systematically plan and monitor the progress of a project in order to work confidently toward its conclusion.

Table 2. A tool for tracking steps in the research process

To manage the complexities of research in an orderly manner, use a tool such as this one when undertaking a project.

How does an investigator report research outcomes?

Research outcomes are reported in various types of deliverables, such as infographics and presentations. This chapter concentrates on written reports of research outcomes, focusing in particular on APA-style reports. APA establishes standards for document organization, page design, text construction, and source attribution, as forthcoming sections make clear. This standardization helps bring consistency to APA-style research reports.

Organizing Documents

APA reports are designed for utility so that readers can readily access and use the information contained therein. The body of an APA research report generally follows IMRaD structure, which stands for Introduction, Method, Results, and Discussion. Lab reports similarly follow this structure, as do many journal articles. Using information adapted from Price et al. (2015, pp. 213-221), we can explore the structure of an APA-style research report in further detail.

Constructing the Title Page

An APA-style research report begins with a title page. The title should specifically and concisely communicate the focus and purpose of the investigation, possibly by addressing the study’s research question(s). A clear and informative title, such as “Bilingual, Digital, Audio-Visual Training Modules Improve Technical Knowledge of Feedlot and Dairy Workers” (Reinhardt et al., 2010), immediately alerts readers to a report’s content, helping them determine whether the document is relevant for their needs.

Constructing the Abstract

The abstract is a synopsis of the study, presented on its own separate page, which summarizes the research objectives, the method used to conduct the investigation, the basic results, and the most important conclusions, oftentimes in one concise paragraph of 250 words or fewer.  Because an abstract outlines a research report, it is written after the report is complete. Readers use abstracts to determine whether texts are relevant for their needs. Figure 9, adapted from Bethel (2020, p. 61), presents a sample journal article abstract—an abstract is a standard feature of the journal article genre. Notice that the abstract follows IMRaD structure.

Figure 9. A sample abstract from a journal article

An abstract’s strategic location in a journal article—at the top of the article’s first page—efficiently directs readers to useful information.

Although APA style does not require abstracts for student papers, some instructors may assign them regardless. If you are required to compose an abstract for an APA-style report, follow these instructions.

• Start the abstract on its own separate page.
• Double space the page.
• Place the heading Abstract (sans italics) at the top of the page; center the heading and use bold type for it.
• Begin the abstract text on the next line; do not indent the line.
• Insert the keywords list on the line right below the abstract by typing the label Keywords: (italicized), indenting that line, and listing three to five specific keywords that describe the research. (Keywords identify the most important aspects of a paper, again helping readers to discern what texts are relevant for their needs.) or

Figure 10 (Excelsior Online Writing Lab, 2020b, “Abstract”) provides a sample abstract and keywords list for an APA-style student paper.

Figure 10. Abstract and keywords list for an APA-style student paper

If you are required to produce an APA research report for a class, ask your instructor whether an abstract and keywords list is required.

Constructing the Introduction

The introduction section of an APA-style research report sets the context for the rest of the document. It does so by announcing the research focus and explaining why it is interesting, reviewing previous research pertinent to the study, identifying a gap in the previous body of research and establishing how the current study intends to fill the gap, stating the research question(s)/research purpose, and outlining how the rest of the report is organized.

Depending on publication conventions, field of study, or research topic, the literature review segment of an introduction may be incorporated into the introduction proper or presented as its own separate section. A literature review can span several paragraphs or pages, depending on the length and complexity of the research report, and it constitutes a balanced argument for why the research question(s)/research purpose is worth addressing. By the end of the literature review, readers should be convinced that the study’s aims and direction make sense and that the study is a logical next step in extending the existing body of research in the area.

Figure 11, adapted from University of Waterloo (2015, p. 2), provides a sample introduction from an APA-style research report. Integral components of the student’s introduction are highlighted for your reference.

Figure 11. An introduction from a student research report

What is your general impression of the sample introduction? What specific features contribute to its effectiveness/ineffectiveness?

This introduction explains the what, why, how, and so what of the report, giving readers a sense of context for the research study.

Constructing the Method Section

The method section describes how a researcher conducted a study and explains what types of primary and secondary research were used and how. Figure 12, excerpted from the journal article “Open Textbooks: Quality and Relevance for Postsecondary Study in The Bahamas” (Bethel, 2020, p. 66), provides an extract from a method section of a research report. You previously read the abstract for this report in Figure 9.

Figure 12. An extract from the method section of a journal article

As Figure 12 illustrates, the method section should be clear and detailed to facilitate reader understanding; in some cases, the level of detail should allow other researchers to replicate the study by following the procedures outlined.

Constructing the Results Section

The results section presents an investigation’s findings and oftentimes contains illustrations to concisely explain points and illustrate complex concepts. Figure 13, adapted from Excelsior Online Writing Lab (2020e), overviews some of the different types of visuals that might be found in a results section.

Figure 13. An overview of common types of visuals

The results section of the Bethel (2020) article on open textbooks contains various types of visuals, as Figure 14, an extract from pages 70 and 71 of the article, illustrates.

Figure 14. An extract from the results section of a journal article

As you review Figure 14, think back to your previous reading about integrating visuals. What change might improve the design of the extract? Provide a rationale for your answer.

The “Designing Documents” and “Integrating Graphic Elements” chapters of this textbook provide further information about the kinds of illustrations that might be found in the results sections of research reports. The APA website (https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/handouts-guides) also provides useful guidance about designing and incorporating visuals.

Constructing the Discussion Section

The discussion section of a research report tells readers what the study’s results mean, draws conclusions based on this interpretation, and may also identify limitations of the research and make suggestions for future investigations. In so doing, the discussion draws connections between the study and existing research discussed in the literature review. Sometimes the results and discussion segments of a report are combined, enabling the writer to discuss both components together; a separate conclusions section may also be included at the end of a report to reinforce the contributions of the research.

Figure 15, adapted from University of Waterloo (2015, p. 7), presents the discussion section of the student research report on children with ADHD that you began reading earlier. What is your general impression of this text? Explain the reason for your response.

Figure 15. Discussion section of a student research report

As Figure 15 illustrates, a discussion section should bring a research report to a logical conclusion.

Constructing the Reference Section

The reference section of a report, which begins on its own separate page, lists the full bibliographic details for sources mentioned in the document. Any source listed in the reference section must have an accompanying in-text citation.

Constructing Appendices

Appendices contain supplementary material that is relevant to the report and may enhance readers’ understanding of its content but that is too lengthy or detailed to be integrated into the report proper. Appendices may not feature in every report; if a report does include them, each appendix is placed on a separate page and is comprised of an individual document or piece of information, such as a map, a list of interview questions, or other material that does not fit neatly into the report. Figure 16, an appendix from the Bethel (2020) article on open textbooks, contains a textbook evaluation instrument presented on its own page (p. 80).

Figure 16. An appendix page from a journal article

If a report contains one appendix, it is labelled Appendix (sans italics). When a report contains more than one appendix, the appendices are lettered in the order in which they are mentioned in the report and labelled with a descriptive tag, as is the appendix in Figure 16.

Designing Pages

APA sets specific formatting standards for student research papers. The template below, adapted from Clackamas Community College Library (2020), Excelsior Online Writing Lab (2020c), and University of Texas Arlington Libraries (2016, “Alphabetizing References”), describes formatting guidelines for APA student papers. The original Clackamas Community College Library (2020) template can be downloaded from http://libguides.clackamas.edu/citing/apa7.

APA Style Template

Constructing Text

In addition to page design specifications, APA makes recommendations regarding text construction. Conveniently, some of these items overlap with stylistic characteristics common to technical writing. We will explore a number of these items here.

Using Appropriate Verb Tenses in Reports

Writers use different verb tenses in the various sections of reports to describe research stages and outcomes. Figure 17, adapted from Tsai (2017, p. 2), details the circumstances for verb tense use in report sections.

Figure 17. Verb tenses are used for different purposes in research reports

As Figure 17 makes clear, verb tenses point to different conceptual and temporal circumstances in research reports.

Eliminating Contractions (adapted from Schall, 2014c, para. 2)

Contractions—in which an apostrophe is used to contract two words into one by joining parts of them—are considered to be informal, conversational expression. Contractions should not be included in a formal document, such as a report, unless the report writer is quoting something that contains contractions.

Avoiding Commonly Confused Words

Word choice errors may affect the readability of a research report. Here are few sets of commonly confused words that can influence readers’ perceptions of a document.

Amount/Number

• Use amount to refer to something that cannot be counted.
  • Jagdish was disgusted by the amount of litter on the ground.
• Use number to refer to something than can be counted.
  • Ali was surprised by the number of mistakes in the report.

Between/Among

• Use between to associate two persons or items.
  • The workshop participants discussed the differences between paraphrasing and summarizing.
• Use among to associate three or more persons or items.
  • The instructor distributed the tasks among four groups.

Less/Fewer

• Use less to refer to an uncountable quantity.
  • I have less homework this week than I did last week.
• Use fewer to refer to a countable quantity.
  • I have fewer pieces of homework this week than I did last week.

Be on the lookout for these commonly confused words when reading and writing research reports.

Avoiding Dangling Modifiers (adapted from Schall, 2014c, paras. 12-13)

Dangling modifiers, descriptive words that seem to dangle off by themselves because they do not accurately describe the words next to them, are a common occurrence in technical writing and are easily overlooked by the writer who assumes the reader will automatically follow the sentence’s meaning. Most often, writers dangle modifiers at the beginnings of sentences. Grammatically, a group of words preceding a sentence’s main subject should directly describe the subject; otherwise, that group of words can become a dangling modifier. The following sentences contain dangling modifiers.

• Using an otoscope, her ears were examined for damage.
• Determining the initial estimates, results from previous tests were used.

Even though these sentences are understandable, grammatically they are unacceptable because the first implies that the ears used the otoscope, while the second implies that the results themselves determined the initial estimates. The words that describe a sentence’s subject must be sensibly related to the subject, and in these two sentences that is not the case. Although here the intended meaning can be discerned with some minimal work, readers often have a hard time sorting out meaning when modifiers are dangled, especially as sentences grow longer. Revision of these sentences to avoid dangling modifiers involves changing the wording slightly and shuffling sentence parts around so the meaning is more logical.

• Her ears were examined for damage with an otoscope.
• Results from previous tests were used to determine the initial estimates.

Because dangling modifiers lead to unintelligible sentences, avoid them.

Referring to Temperature Measurements (adapted from Schall, 2014a, para. 3)

Degree measures of temperature are normally expressed with the ° symbol rather than with the written word, and a space is inserted after the number but not between the symbol and the temperature scale: The sample was heated to 80 °C. Unlike the abbreviations for Fahrenheit and Celsius, the abbreviation for Kelvin (which refers to an absolute scale of temperature) is not preceded by the degree symbol (e.g., 12 K is correct).

Writing about Numbers (adapted from Schall, 2014a, paras. 4-5)

The rules for expressing numbers are as follows.

• Express statistical and mathematical functions and measured quantities—those involving decimal points, scores, dimensions, degrees, distances, weights, measures, ages, times, and sums of money—in numeral form (e.g., 1.3 seconds, $25,000, 2 amperes).
  • The depth to the water at the time of testing was 16.16 feet.
• Express percentages as follows: use the % symbol preceded by a numeral when referring to an exact number, and spell out the word percent (sans italics) when referring to a general size (“a sizable percent of the population”). → Note: this is the APA guideline. General technical writing guidelines recommend using the word percent (sans italics) instead of the symbol (%) in sentences (e.g., 25 percent) and using the symbol (e.g., 25%) in tables to save space.
• Write the numbers zero through nine as words, unless they appear as part of a string of larger related numbers. Write numbers 10 and above as numerals.
  • For this treatment, the steel was heated 18 different times.
• Avoid beginning sentences with numbers. If you must begin a sentence with a number, write out the number.
  • Fifteen new staff members attended the safety training session.
• Treat similar numbers in grammatically connected groups alike.
  • Two dramatic changes followed: four samples exploded and thirteen lab technicians resigned.

If you are not sure about when to use numerals versus words, consult the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA, 2020), the definitive source for APA standards. The APA also provides a number of quick reference guides on its website (https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/handouts-guides), including one that covers statistics and numbers.

Using Parentheses (adapted from Schall, 2014b)

In general, parentheses are used to identify material that acts as an aside, but in technical writing the rules for using parentheses can be more nuanced. Parentheses may also be used

• To introduce tables or figures within a sentence.
  • In pulse-jet collectors (Figure 3), bags are supported from a metal cage fastened onto a cell plate at the top of the collector.
• To represent converted units.
  • The funnel used for this experiment was 7 in. (17.8 cm) in length.
• When enumerating.
  • The system has three principal components: (1) a cleaning booth, (2) an air reservoir, and (3) an air spray manifold.
• To indicate product manufacturer names.
  • The filtering process involves a 10-mm Dorr-Oliver cyclone (Zefon International).
• To introduce an acronym after it has been written out.
  • Units will be expressed in cubic feet per minute (cfm).

If parentheses enclose a full sentence beginning with a capital letter, then the end punctuation for the sentence falls inside the parentheses.

• Typically, suppliers specify air to cloth ratios of 6:1 or higher. (However, ratios of 4:1 should be used for applications involving silica or feldspathic minerals.)

If the parentheses indicate a citation at the end of a sentence, then the sentence’s end punctuation comes after the parentheses are closed.

• In a study comparing three different building types, respirable dust concentrations were significantly lower in the open-structure building (Hugh et al., 2005).

Finally, if the parentheses appear in the middle of a sentence (as in this example), then any necessary punctuation (such as the comma that appeared just a few words ago) is delayed until the parentheses are closed.

Attributing Sources

In addition to document organization, page design, and text construction specifications, APA also establishes standard conventions for citation and referencing. A writer uses in-text citations to attribute source information within the body of a report and reference list entries to provide the full publication details for the sources cited in text.

Using In-Text Citations 

Although other sections of this textbook cover in-text citations in some detail, we will review their construction and conventions for use here to reinforce the importance of source attribution skills to your college and professional careers. Figure 18, a multipage handout adapted from the Robert Gillespie Academic Skills Centre, University of Toronto Mississauga (n.d.a, pp. 5-8), provides an overview of APA in-text citations.

As you review the conventions for APA in-text citations, keep in mind the following punctuation rules, which apply to quotation marks placed at the ends of sentences.

• Place commas and periods inside closing quotation marks.
• Place colons and semicolons outside closing quotation marks.
• Place question marks and exclamation points inside closing quotation marks when they are part of the material being quoted and outside the closing quotation marks when they are not part of the material.

Figure 18. An overview of APA in-text citations

For expanded coverage of APA in-text citations, refer to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA, 2020) or the APA website

(https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/handouts-guides).

The previous figure mentions pairing signal phrases with in-text citations, and you may recall from previous reading that writers use signal phrases to integrate source material into documents in a cohesive way. Signal phrases, in turn, convey various circumstances, as Figure 19, adapted from the Academic Writing Help Centre, Student Academic Success Services, University of Ottawa (2016), points out.

Figure 19. A variety of signal phrases and their circumstances for use

You may use such signal phrases along with in-text citations and accompanying reference list entries to cohesively incorporate source material into a research report.

Constructing References

Reference list entries accompany in-text citations in an APA-style research report. Figure 20, a multipage handout adapted from Reynolds Community College Libraries (2020a), provides an overview of reference formats for various source types.

Figure 20. APA referencing formats for various types of sources

If you require further detail about APA referencing formats, consult the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA, 2020) or the APA website  (https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/handouts-guides).

How does an investigator report research in an ethical manner?

Research outcomes must be reported in an ethical manner to be credible and useful. Take into account that ethical considerations affect the development of research reports in numerous ways, as forthcoming paragraphs, which are adapted from Hamlin et al. (2017a, pp. 98-102), explain.

Foregrounding or Downplaying Key Information

A writer’s choices about how to present content in a report can affect readers’ understanding of the relative weight or seriousness of the information. For example, hiding some crucial piece of information in the middle of a long paragraph and burying that paragraph deep in a lengthy document de-emphasizes the information. On the other hand, placing a minor point in a prominent spot—for instance, at the top of a bullet list in a report’s executive summary—tells readers it is crucial.

Omitting Research that Does Not Support a Project Idea

When compiling a report, a writer might discover conflicting data that does not support the research project’s goals. For example, let us imagine the writer’s small company has problems with employee morale. Research shows that bringing in an outside expert, someone who is unfamiliar with the company, has the potential to effect the greatest change in addressing the issue. The writer discovers, however, that hiring such an expert is cost prohibitive. If the writer leaves this information out of the report, its omission encourages the employer to pursue an action that is not feasible.

Distorting Visual Information

When writers present information visually in reports, they must be careful not to misrepresent reality. To illustrate this point, consider the pie charts in Figure 21, adapted from Hamlin et al. (2017a, p. 100). The data in each pie chart is identical, but the chart on the left presents information in a misleading way.

Figure 21. Identical data presented two different ways in pie charts

Imagine that these pie charts represent donations received by four candidates running for city council. When looking at the pie chart on the left, the candidate represented by the green slice labeled Item C might think she received more donations than the candidate represented by the blue slice labeled Item A. In fact, if we look at the same data in the differently oriented pie chart on the right, we can see that Item C represents less than half of the donations than those for Item A. Thus, a simple change in perspective can alter the perception of an image.

Relying on Limited Source Information

A thorough research report compiles information from a variety of reliable sources in order to examine a topic from multiple angles. Using a variety of sources helps a report writer avoid the potential bias that can occur when relying on a limited pool of experts. Imagine, for instance, that a writer is composing a report on the real estate market in Central Oregon. The author would be ill-advised to collect data from only one realator’s office. While a particular office might have access to broad data on the real estate market, he/she runs the risk of appearing biased by exclusively selecting material from this one source. Collecting information from multiple brokers would demonstrate thorough and unbiased research.

Documenting Sources in an Inaccurate Manner

When report writers document sources, they are expected to accurately and consistently acknowledge the origin of outside information via use of in-text citations and accompanying reference list entries. Listing a source on a reference page without an in-text citation misleads readers: readers assume that the listed item is a source when in fact it is not or that the writer has failed to mark the boundaries between his/her own ideas and source information in text. Note that many documentation problems occur because writers do not clearly distinguish between their own ideas and source material.

Violating Academic Integrity

Academic integrity violations, such as those mentioned in the previous paragraph, can destroy the credibility of a research report and its writer’s reputation. This reality holds true in both academia and in the workplace. Using information adapted from Student Academic Success Services, Queen’s University (2018a, pp. 4-7), Table 3 explores violations of academic integrity that can affect research reports and other types of knowledge work.

Table 3. Types of academic integrity violations and how to avoid them

The following list of frequently asked questions, adapted from Student Academic Success Services, Queen’s University (2018a, pp. 10-11), may help to clarify lingering uncertainties about the information presented in Table 3.

• Is it true that if I paraphrase from a source, I do not have to give credit?
  • This is not true. If you use anyone else’s ideas, words, or content in an assignment, you must give appropriate credit.
• Is it true that as long as I provide a citation when I copy something, I am not plagiarizing?
  • Providing a citation is a start, but you must add quotation marks if you are copying someone’s content word for word.
• Am I allowed to resubmit previous assignments since I own them?
  • No because this constitutes self-plagiarism. When you are given an assignment, you are expected to use original effort to complete it.
• Since my instructor did not ask for sources, do I need to include any?
  • Just because your instructor did explicitly ask for sources, this is not an excuse to avoid giving proper credit. To avoid plagiarism, you must acknowledge your sources.
• Is it okay if I did not know that I was plagiarizing/violating other aspects of academic integrity?
  • Not knowing is not an excuse, so you should familiarize yourself with forms of academic dishonesty and school policies and talk with your instructor if you still have questions.
• Is it alright to share information with friends when working on an assignment?
  • If the work is meant to be independent, you are violating academic integrity standards by discussing answers with others. If your instructor does not address the issue of collaborative work, it is your responsibility to find out whether such work is acceptable rather than simply assuming it is.
• Am I abiding by academic integrity standards if I buy a paper online and submit it for a course?
  • The act of purchasing a paper for submission is a deliberate breach of academic integrity standards and constitutes cheating.
• Am I abiding by academic integrity standards if I ask a family member or friend to complete a paper or assignment for me and I submit that material for a class?
  • Submitting coursework that a family member or friend completed for you is a deliberate breach of academic integrity standards and constitutes cheating.

Academic integrity violations take a variety of forms, as this textbook section makes clear, and a report writer has an ethical obligation to avoid all of them.

Plagiarism can be a particularly pernicious problem in a research report because misrepresented research data can affect subsequent studies that build on the report’s foundation. The information below, adapted from Student Academic Success Services, Queen’s University (2018b, pp. 1-3), provides detailed guidance for how to prevent plagiarism.

• You must document when
  • Using or referring to someone else’s words, ideas, or content from a journal, book, newspaper, magazine, textbook, song, TV program, film, webpage, letter, email, advertisement, speech, dictionary, or other medium.
  • Using data collected during an interview.
  • Copying the exact words or a unique phrase from somewhere.
  • Reprinting any tables or figures.
• You do not need to document when
  • Writing about your own experiences, insights, thoughts, or conclusions regarding a subject.
  • Using common knowledge (folklore, commonsense observations, shared information within your field of study or cultural group).
  • Compiling generally accepted facts.
  • Writing up your own experimental research results.
• Material is likely common knowledge if
  • You find the same information undocumented in several other sources.
  • You think it is information your readers already know.
  • Anyone could easily find the information with general reference sources, such as encyclopedias or dictionaries.
• When paraphrasing and summarizing
  • Write your version without looking at the original text so you rely only on your memory.
  • Rewrite key ideas using different words and sentence structures than those used in the original source.
  • Check your version against the original for accuracy. Also look for mistakenly borrowed phrases.
  • Introduce the paraphrase or summary with a phrase crediting the source.
  • Cite and reference the source.
• When quoting
  • Use quotations sparingly: an excessive number can affect your credibility and interfere with your style.
  • Enclose the quoted material in quotation marks.
  • Indicate added phrases with brackets and omitted text with ellipses.
  • Introduce the quotation with a phrase crediting the source.
  • Cite and reference the source.

An ethical writer avoids plagiarism and its destructive consequences by keeping the above points in mind when producing a report.

Chapter Conclusion

Planning, carrying out, and reporting research requires considerable time and effort, as this chapter makes clear. In return, a research project offers an opportunity to discover new things and activate a valuable skill set that you will hone throughout your time in academia and beyond.

Activity: What do you know about academic integrity standards?

To test your knowledge of academic integrity standards, answer the following questions, which are adapted from the Robert Gillespie Academic Skills Centre, University of Toronto Mississauga (n.d.b, p. 3). Provide a rationale for your answers, and be prepared to discuss them in class.

1. Does this scenario constitute plagiarism: composing a paragraph by taking phrases from a number of sources and combining them with words of your own, without using quotation marks or citing the sources?
   1. Yes
   2. No

2. Martin is having difficulty with his chemistry course. He decides to pay for a tutor to teach him the content and help him with his assignments. Could Martin be committing an academic offence?
   1. Yes
   2. No
   3. It depends on the type of tutoring Martin receives

3. Does this scenario constitute plagiarism: paraphrasing a text by replacing a few words with synonyms and citing the source?
   1. Yes
   2. No

4. Laura is taking a math class that her friend previously took. Laura’s course syllabus says that calculators are authorized test aids, but her friend tells her that calculators are not allowed in math exams. Is Laura allowed to use a calculator during her math tests?
   1. Yes
   2. No

5. Does this scenario constitute cheating: buying a research report and submitting parts of it as your own?
   1. Yes
   2. No

6. Petr wants to make sure his cellphone is safe during his test. He keeps it in his pocket during the test, but does not use it. Is Petr committing an academic integrity offense?
   1. Yes
   2. No

7. Does this scenario constitute plagiarism: omitting an in-text citation and reference list entry when incorporating common knowledge information into a document?
   1. Yes
   2. No

8. Hafsa gets a doctor’s note to excuse her absence from an exam. She notices that the doctor spelled her name incorrectly. She fixes the spelling and submits the note. Is Hafsa committing an academic offence?
   1. Yes
   2. No

9. Does this scenario constitute plagiarism: giving a reference but omitting quotation marks when incorporating one sentence from a source text into your own document.
   1. Yes
   2. No

10. Darya’s essay contains only her own writing and a few quotes. She does not include in-text citations, but all her sources are listed on the end-of-text reference page. Is Darya committing an academic offence?
    1. Yes
    2. No

11. Does this scenario constitute plagiarism: incorporating material that you created or gathered yourself, such as photos or data from field research, into a document without citing/referencing it?
    1. Yes
    2. No

12. After hearing from a friend how helpful course assistance websites can be, Paul decides to upload a quiz he took for a class to one of these sites in order to gain access to its content. Is Paul committing an academic offense?
    1. Yes
    2. No

Homework: How are research and research writing skills used in your field of interest?

What is your career interest? How might a professional working in that career use research and research writing skills in the workplace? Consult the websites listed in the “Understanding Disciplinary Expectations for Writing” chapter of this textbook to research your response to this question, and work with a university librarian if you need to locate additional sources of credible information. Afterwards, write an APA-style report to document the processes and findings of your research project. Use the guidance in this chapter to organize, design, and construct your report and to cite and reference its sources. This exercise is adapted from Successful Writing (2012, para. 11).

After you have drafted your report, use the handouts “Eliminating Wordiness” (Student Academic Success Services, Queen’s University, 2018c) and “APA Checklist” (Excelsior Online Writing Lab, 2020a), provided below, to refine your work.

References

Academic Writing Help Centre, Student Academic Success Service, University of Ottawa (2016).  Signal phrases. License CC-BY 4.0. https://sass.uottawa.ca/sites/sass.uottawa.ca/files/awhc-signal-phrases.pdf

American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000

Bethel, E. (2020). Open textbooks: Quality and relevance for postsecondary study in The Bahamas. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 21(2), 61-80. License CC-BY 4.0. http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/4598

Clackamas Community College Library. (2020). Download & edit: APA Word document template. License CC-BY 4.0. http://libguides.clackamas.edu/citing/apa7

Driscoll, D.L. (2011). Introduction to primary research: Observations, surveys, and interviews In C. Lowe, & P. Zemliansky (Eds.), Writing spaces: Readings on writing (Vol. 2, pp. 153-174). Parlor Press. License: CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0. https://wac.colostate.edu/books/writingspaces2/driscoll–introduction-to-primary-research.pdf

Excelsior Online Writing Lab. (2020a). APA checklist. License CC-BY 4.0. https://owl.excelsior.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2020/01/APAChecklist7theditionInteractiveNoImages.pdf

Excelsior Online Writing Lab. (2020b). APA formatting guide: 7th edition [PowerPoint slides]. License CC-BY 4.0. https://owl.excelsior.edu/citation-and-documentation/apa-style/apa-formatting-guide/

Excelsior Online Writing Lab. (2020c). APA headings: 7th edition. License CC-BY 4.0. https://owl.excelsior.edu/citation-and-documentation/apa-style/apa-headings/

Excelsior Online Writing Lab. (2020d). Evaluating a website. License CC-BY 4.0. https://owl.excelsior.edu/orc/what-to-do-after-reading/analyzing/evaluating-a-website/evaluating-a-website-handouts/

Excelsior Online Writing Lab. (2020e). How to read visual aids. License CC-BY 4.0. https://owl.excelsior.edu/orc/what-to-do-while-reading/annotating/annotating-how-to-read-visual-aids/annotating-how-to-read-visual-aids-handouts/

Hamlin, A., Rubio, C., & DeSilva, M. (2017a). Ethics in technical writing. In A. Gross, A. Hamlin, B. Merck, C. Rubio, J. Naas, M. Savage, & M. Desilva, Technical writing (pp. 91-104).   Open Oregon Educational Resources. License: CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0. https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/technicalwriting/

Hamlin, A., Rubio, C., & DeSilva, M. (2017b). The research cycle. In A. Gross, A. Hamlin, B. Merck, C. Rubio, J. Naas, M. Savage, & M. Desilva, Technical writing (p. 43). Open Oregon Educational Resources. https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/technicalwriting/

Hayden, W., & Margolin, S. (2020). How to use a source: The BEAM method. Hunter College Libraries. https://library.hunter.cuny.edu/research-toolkit/how-do-i-use-sources/beam-method

The Learning Portal, College Libraries Ontario. (2020). How to create a database search. License: CC-BY-NC 4.0.  https://tlp-lpa.ca/ld.php?content_id=26167755

McLaughlin Library, University of Guelph. (n.d.a). Developing a research question. License: CC-BY-SA. https://learningcommons.lib.uoguelph.ca/item/developing-research-question-worksheet

McLaughlin Library, University of Guelph. (n.d.b). Make the most out of office hours. License: CC-BY-SA. https://learningcommons.lib.uoguelph.ca/item/make-most-out-office-hours

McLaughlin Library, University of Guelph. (n.d.c). Templates for writing thesis statements. License: CC-BY-SA.   https://learningcommons.lib.uoguelph.ca/item/templates-writing-thesis-statements

Price, P.C., Jhangiani, R.S., & Chiang, I.C.A. (2015). Research methods in psychology (2nd Canadian ed.). BCampus Open Education. License: CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0. https://opentextbc.ca/researchmethods/

Reinhardt, C.D., Thomson, D.U., & Retzlaff, D.D. (2010). Bilingual, Digital, Audio-Visual Training Modules Improve Technical Knowledge of Feedlot and Dairy Workers. Online Journal of  Rural Research & Policy, 5(7). License: CC-BY 4.0.  https://doi.org/10.4148/ojrrp.v5i7.266

Reynolds Community College Libraries. (2020a). APA handouts: APA 7th edition: Citation examples. License: CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0. https://libguides.reynolds.edu/apa

Reynolds Community College Libraries. (2019b). Refine, narrow or broaden a topic. License: CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0. https://libguides.reynolds.edu/c.php?g=143583&p=939853

Reynolds Community College Libraries. (2019c). Refine, narrow or broaden a topic worksheet. License: CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0. https://libguides.reynolds.edu/c.php?g=143583&p=939853

Robert Gillespie Academic Skills Centre, University of Toronto Mississauga. (n.d.a). APA formatting and style guide. License: CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0. https://www.utm.utoronto.ca/asc/sites/files/asc/public/shared/pdf/tip_sheets_writing/APA_7th_StyleGuide_v3_PR.pdf

Robert Gillespie Academic Skills Centre, University of Toronto Mississauga. (n.d.b). 6 essential skills for your academic career at UTM. License: CC-BY-NC-SA 4.0. https://www.utm.utoronto.ca/asc/sites/files/asc/public/shared/pdf/study_skills/SkillsBooklet__6Skills_Web_v1.pdf

Schall, J. (2014a). Expressing temperatures and numbers: Effective technical writing in the   information age. Penn State College of Earth and Mineral Sciences. License: CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0.   https://www.e-education.psu.edu/styleforstudents/c2_p10.html

Schall, J. (2014b). Parentheses: Effective technical writing in the information age. Penn State College of Earth and Mineral Sciences.License: CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0. https://www.e-education.psu.edu/styleforstudents/c2_p8.html

Schall, J. (2014c). Special stylistic issues in technical writing: Effective technical writing in the information age. Penn State College of Earth and Mineral Sciences. License: CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0. https://www.e-education.psu.edu/styleforstudents/c1_p15.html

Student Academic Success Services, Queen’s University. (2018a). Academic integrity. License: CC-BY-NC-SA 2.5. https://sass.queensu.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Academic-Integrity.pdf

Student Academic Success Services, Queen’s University. (2018b). Avoiding plagiarism. License: CC-BY-NC-SA 2.5. https://sass.queensu.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Avoiding-Plagiarism.pdf

Student Academic Success Services, Queen’s University. (2018c). Eliminating wordiness. License: CC-BY-NC-SA 2.5. http://sass.queensu.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Eliminating-Wordiness.pdf

Successful Writing. (2012). Writing from research: What will I learn?License: CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0.  https://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/successful-writing/s15-writing-from-research-what-wil.html

Teaching & Learning, University Libraries. (2018). Choosing & using sources: A guide to academic research. The Ohio State University. License: CC-BY 4.0. https://ohiostate.pressbooks.pub/choosingsources/

Tsai, S.C. (2017). How to decide the format and verb tense of in-text citations in research writing. The Ohio State University Writing Center. https://cstw.osu.edu/sites/cstw.osu.edu/files/Research%20Citation%20Practices.pdf

UC (University of California) Libraries. (n.d.). A cycle of revolving research. License: CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0.  https://library.ucmerced.edu/rpt/knowledge_cycle_8

University of Texas Arlington Libraries. (2016). APA guide: 7th edition, references: Alphabetizing references. License: CC-BY-NC 4.0. https://libguides.uta.edu/apa/references

University of Waterloo. (2015). Health sciences annotated literature review. WriteOnline.ca. . License: CC-BY-SA 4.0. http://writeonline.ca/litreview.php?content=section6

Writing and Communication Centre, University of Waterloo. (n.d.a). Develop a research question. . License: CC-BY-SA 4.0. https://uwaterloo.ca/writing-and-communication-centre/sites/ca.writing-and-communication-centre/files/uploads/files/step_4_develop_a_research_question.pdf

Writing and Communication Centre, University of Waterloo. (n.d.b). Move from research to writing: How to think. . License: CC-BY-SA 4.0. https://uwaterloo.ca/writing-and-communication-centre/sites/ca.writing-and-communication-centre/files/uploads/files/step_8_how_to_analyze_the_information_in_your_source_h.pdf